Research Papers on Tornadogenesis (By Topic)
High-end Tornadogenesis
Broyles, J. C., C. K. Potvin, G. L. Dial, J. Murnan, S. Shores, A. D. Lyons, M. S. Elliott, and A. R. Cook, 2022: Tornadogenesis in high-end tornadic supercells, part 1: The RFD surge, RFD occlusion and cell mergers. Proc., 30th Conf. Severe Local Storms, Santa Fe, NM, P13.
Broyles, J. C., C. K. Potvin, G. L. Dial, J. Murnan, S. Shores, A. D. Lyons, M. S. Elliott, and A. R. Cook, 2022: Tornadogenesis in high-end tornadic supercells, part 2: The descending reflectivity core, inflow channel and streamwise vorticity current. Proc., 30th Conf. Severe Local Storms, Santa Fe, NM, P13.
Broyles, J. C., R. Wynne, N. Dipasquale, H. Guerrero, T. Hendricks, 2002: Radar characteristics of violent tornadic storms using the NSSL algorithms across separate geographic regions of the United States. Preprints, 21st Conf. Severe Local Storms, San Antonio, TX, 150-153.
Fujita, T., 1975: New evidence from April 3-4, 1974 Tornadoes: SMRP Research Paper No. 127.
Orf, L., R. Wilhelmson, B. Lee, C. Finley, and A. Houston, 2017: Evolution of a long-track violent tornado within a simulated supercell. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 98, 45–68.
Tornadogenesis
Davies-Jones, R. P., 1982: Observational and theoretical aspects of tornadogenesis. Intense Atmospheric Vortices, L. Bengtsson and J. Lighthill, Eds. Springer-Verlag, 175–189.
Davies-Jones, R. P., 2006: Tornadogenesis in supercell storms – What we know and what we don’t know. Preprints, Symposium on the Challenges of Severe Convective Storms, Atlanta, GA, Amer. Meteor. Soc., P2.2.
Fischer, J., and J. M. L. Dahl, 2023: Supercell-external storms and boundaries acting as catalysts for tornadogenesis. Mon. Wea. Rev., 151, 23–38
Fischer, J., J. M. L. Dahl, B. E. Coffer, et al., 2024: Supercell tornadogenesis: Recent progress in our state of understanding. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 105, E1084–E1097.
Houser, J., H. B. Bluestein, A. Seimon, J. Snyder, K. Thiem, 2018: Rapid-scan Mobile Radar Observations of Tornadogenesis. Amer. Geophy. Union, A54H-25.
Lemon, L. R. and C. A. Doswell, 1979: Severe thunderstorm evolution and mesocyclone structure as related to tornadogenesis. Mon. Wea. Rev., 107, 1184-1197.
Magsig, M. A., D. W. Burgess, D. C. Dowell, Y. Richardson, J. Wurman, 2002: The structure and evolution of hook echoes during tornadogenesis as revealed by high-resolution radar data. 21st Conference on Severe Local Storms, San Antonio, TX, Amer. Meteor. Soc., pp. 473-476.
Markowski, P. M., 2024: A new pathway for tornadogenesis exposed by numerical simulations of supercells in turbulent environments. J. Atmos. Sci., 81, 481–518.
Markowski, P. M., J. M. Straka, and E. N. Rasmussen, 2003b: Tornadogenesis resulting from the transport of circulation by a downdraft: Idealized numerical simulations. J. Atmos. Sci., 60, 795–823.
Markowski, P. M., and Y. Richardson, 2009: Tornadogenesis: Our current understanding, forecasting considerations, and questions to guide future research. Atmos. Res., 93, 3–10.
Rear Flank Downdraft
Lee, B. D., C. A. Finley, and T. M. Samaras, 2011: Surface analysis near and within the Tipton, Kansas, tornado on 29 May 2008. Mon. Wea. Rev., 139, 370–386.
Markowski, P. M., 2002a: Hook echoes and rear-flank downdrafts: A review. Mon. Wea. Rev., 130, 852-876.
Markowski, P. M., J. M. Straka, and E. N. Rasmussen, 2002: Direct surface thermodynamic observations within the rear-flank downdrafts of nontornadic and tornadic supercells. Mon. Wea. Rev., 130 , 1692–1721.
Skinner, P. S., C. C. Weiss, L. J. Wicker, C. K. Potvin, and D. C. Dowell, 2015: Forcing mechanisms for an internal rear-flank downdraft momentum surge in the 18 May 2010 Dumas, Texas, supercell. Mon. Wea. Rev., 143, 4305–4330.
Skinner, P. S., C. C. Weiss, M. M. French, H. B. Bluestein, P. M. Markowski, and Y. P. Richardson, 2014: VORTEX2 observations of a low-level mesocyclone with multiple internal rear-flank downdraft momentum surges in the 18 May 2010 Dumas, Texas, supercell. Mon. Wea. Rev., 142, 2935–2960.
Descending Reflectivity Core
Byko, Z. P. Markowski, Y. Richardson, J. Wurman, 2006: Radar reflectivity “blobs” observed by the Doppler on wheels. Preprints, 23rd Conf. on Severe Local Storms, St. Louis, MO, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 15.7.
Byko, Z., P. Markowski, Y. Richardson, J. Wurman, and E. Adlerman, 2009: Descending reflectivity cores in supercell thunderstorms observed by mobile radars and in a high-resolution numerical simulation. Wea. Forecasting, 24, 155–186.
Kennedy, A. D., J. M. Straka, and E. N. Rasmussen, 2006: The existence of descending reflectivity cores in rear flank appendages of supercells. Preprints, 23 rd Conference on Severe Local Storms, St. Louis, MO, Amer. Meteor. Soc., P10.4.
Kennedy, A. D., J. M. Straka, and E. N. Rasmussen, 2007a: A statistical study of the association of DRCs with supercells and tornadoes. Wea. Forecasting, 22, 1192–1199.
Kennedy, A. D., J. M. Straka, and E. N. Rasmussen, 2007b: A visual observation of the 6 June 2005 descending reflectivity core. Electron. J. Severe Storms Meteor., 2, 1–12.
Rasmussen, E. N., J. M. Straka, M. S. Gilmore, and R. P. Davies-Jones, 2006: A preliminary survey of rear-flank descending reflectivity cores in supercell storms. Wea. Forecasting, 21, 923–938.
Cell Mergers
Flournoy, M. D., A. Lyza, M. Satrio, M. Diedrichsen, M. Coniglio, and S. Waugh, 2022: A climatology of cell mergers with supercells and their association with mesocyclone evolution. Mon. Wea. Rev., 150, 451–461.
French, M. M., P. S. Skinner, L. J. Wicker, and H. B. Bluestein, 2015: Documenting a rare tornado merger observed in the 24 May 2011 El Reno-Piedmont, Oklahoma supercell. Mon. Wea. Rev., 143.
Hastings, R. M., Y. P. Richardson, and P. M. Markowski, 2014: Simulation of near-surface mesocyclogenesis during mergers between mature and nascent supercells. 27th Conf. on Severe Local Storms, Madison, WI, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 3B.2.
Lee, B. D., B. F. Jewett, and R. B. Wilhelmson, 2006: The 19 April 1996 Illinois tornado outbreak. Part II: Cell Mergers and associated tornado incidence. Wea. Forecasting, 21, 449-464.
Nixon, C. J., J. T. Allen, M. B. Wilson, M. J. Bunkers, and M. Taszarek, 2024: Cell mergers, boundary interactions, and convective systems in cases of significant tornadoes and hail. Wea. Forecasting, 39, 1435–1458.
Rogers, J., and C. Weiss, 2008: The association of cell mergers with tornado occurrence. Preprints, 24th Conf. on Severe Local Storms, Savannah, GA, Amer. Meteor. Soc., P3.23.
Rogers, J. W., 2012: Significant tornado events associated with cell mergers. Preprints, 26th Conf. on Severe Local Storms, Nashville, TN, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 9.4. Rotunno, R., . 1986: Tornadoes and tornadogenesis. Mesoscale Meteorology and Forecasting, P. S. Ray, Ed., 414–436.
Tanamachi, R. L., P. L. Heinselman, and L. J. Wicker, 2015: Impacts of a storm merger on the 24 May 2011 El Reno, Oklahoma, tornadic supercell. Wea. Forecasting, 30, 501–524.
Wurman, J., Y. Richardson, C. Alexander, S. Weygandt, P. F. Zhang, 2007: Dual-Doppler and Single-Doppler Analysis of a Tornadic Storm Undergoing Mergers and Repeated Tornadogenesis. Mon. Wea. Rev., 135, 736-7.
Forward Flank Downdraft
Shabbott, C. J., and P. M. Markowski, 2004: Surface observations within forward-flank downdraft of a tornadic and nontornadic supercell. Preprints, 22 nd Conf. on Severe Local Storms, Hyannis, MA, Amer. Meteor. Soc, P13.1.
Shabbott, C. J., and P. M. Markowski, 2006: Surface in situ observations within the outflow of forward-flank downdrafts of supercell thunderstorms. Mon. Wea. Rev., 134, 1422–1441.
Streamwise Vorticity Current
Dixon, A., P. S. Skinner, and L. Orf, 2024: Simulated WSR-88D Observations of the Streamwise Vorticity Current. J. Oper. Meteor., 12, 27-39.
Dixon, A., L. Orf, and K. Halbert, 2018: The streamwise vorticity current: Its origin and strategies for remote detection. 29th Conf. on Severe Local Storms, Stowe, VT, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 84.
Murdzek, S. S., P. M. Markowski, and Y. P. Richardson, 2020: Simultaneous dual-Doppler and mobile mesonet observations of streamwise vorticity currents in three supercells. Mon. Wea. Rev., 148, 4859–4874.
Orf, L., R. Wilhelmson, A. Dixon, T. Halbert, 2018: The Role of the Streamwise Vorticity Current in Tornado Genesis and Maintenance. Preprints, 29th Conf. on Severe Local Storms, Stowe, VT, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 1.5.
Schueth, A., 2018: Comparing observations and simulations of the streamwise vorticity current in a tornadic supercell storm, Thesis, Texas Tech University. Schueth, A., C. Weiss, 2021: Comparing Observations and Simulations of the streamwise vorticity current and the forward-flank convergence boundary in a supercell storm. Mon. Wea. Rev., 149, 1651-1670.
Satrio, M., 2022: A Triple-Doppler Analysis of the 17 May 2019 McCook / Farnam, NE tornadic supercell sampled during TORUS. Convective Seminar Spring 2022.
Violent Tornado Cases
Bluestein, H. B., J. C. Snyder, and J. B. Houser, 2015: A multiscale overview of the El Reno, Oklahoma, tornadic supercell of 31 May 2013. Wea. Forecasting, 30, 525–552.
Broyles, J. C., C. K. Potvin, G. L. Dial, J. Murnan, S. Shores, A. D. Lyons, M. S. Elliott, and A. R. Cook, 2022: Tornadogenesis in high-end tornadic supercells, part 3: Moore, Oklahoma EF5 on May 20, 2013 – A representative case of tornadogenesis. Proc., 30th Conf. Severe Local Storms, Santa Fe, NM, P13.
Radar and Animation (263 MB), Animation Only (73 MB)
Houser, J. L., H. B. Bluestein, and J. C. Snyder, 2015: Rapid-scan, polarimetric, Doppler radar observations of tornadogenesis and tornado dissipation in a tornadic supercell: The “El Reno, Oklahoma” storm of 24 May 2011. Mon. Wea. Rev., 143, 2685- 2710.
Kurdzo, J. M., Bodine D. J. , Cheong B. L. , and Palmer R. D., 2015: High temporal resolution polarimetric X-band doppler radar observations of the 20 May 2013 Moore, Oklahoma Tornado. Proc. 27th Conf. on Severe Local Storms, Madison, WI, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 11A.3.
Lee, B. D., C. A. Finley, and C. D. Karstens, 2012: The Bowdle, South Dakota, cyclic tornadic supercell of 22 May 2012: Surface analysis of rear-flank downdraft evolution and multiple internal surges. Mon. Wea. Rev., 140, 3419– 3441.
Stevenson, S. A., C. S. Miller, D. M. L. Sills, G. A. Kopp, D. M. Rhee, and F. T. Lombardo, 2023: Assessment of wind speeds along the damage path of the Alonsa, Manitoba EF4 tornado on 3 August 2018. J. Wind Engineering & Industrial Aerodynamics, 238, 105422.
Strong Tornado Cases
Hane, C. E., and P. S. Ray, 1985:_Pressure and buoyancy fields derived from Doppler radar data in a tornadic thunderstorm. J Atmos. Sci., 42, 18-35.
Kopp, G. A, E. Hong, E. Gravanski, D. Stedman and D. Sills, 2016: Assessment of wind speeds based on damage observations from the Angus (Ontario) tornado of June 17, 2014. Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, 44, 37-47.
Kosiba, K. A., J. Wurman, Y. Richardson, P. Markowski, P. Robinson, and J. Marquis, 2013: Genesis of the Goshen County, Wyoming, tornado on 5 June 2009 during VORTEX2. Mon. Wea. Rev., 141, 1157–1181.
Sills, D. and A. Ashton, 2012: Examination of a remarkable Great Lake-spawned tornadic supercell: the 2011 Goderich Ontario F3 tornado event. Extended Abstracts, 26th AMS Conference on Severe Local Storms, Nashville, TN, Amer. Meteorol. Soc., Paper 6.4., 1-14.
Sills, D. M. L., & Miller, C. S., 2025: Multi-level in-situ measurements during a direct hit by a significant tornado. Atmosphere-Ocean, 64 (1), 1-9.
Sills, D., E. Hong, A. Jaffe, S. Stevenson, and G. A. Kopp, 2018: The ‘cross-border’ tornado outbreak of 24 August 2016 – analysis of the two tornadoes in Ontario. Extended Abstracts, 29th AMS Conference on Severe Local Storms, Stowe, VT, Amer. Meteorol. Soc., Paper 180, 1-13.
Weak Tornado Cases
Dowell, D. C., and H. B. Bluestein, 1997: The Arcadia, Oklahoma, storm of 17 May 1981: Analysis of a supercell during tornadogenesis. Mon. Wea. Rev., 125, 2562–2582.
Marquis, J. N., Y. P. Richardson, J. M. Wurman, and P. M. Markowski, 2008: Single- and dual-Doppler analysis of a tornadic vortex and surrounding storm scale flow in the Crowell, Texas, supercell of 30 April 2000. Mon. Wea. Rev.,136, 5017–5043.
Sills, D. M. L., J. W. Wilson, P. I. Joe, D. W. Burgess, R. M. Webb, N. I. Fox, 2004: The 3 November tornadic event during Sydney 2000: storm evolution and the role of low-level boundaries. Weather and Forecasting, 19, 22-42.
Sills, D., M.-E. Giguère and J. Henderson, 2016: A unique cold-season supercell produces an EF1 ‘snownado’. Extended Abstracts, 28th AMS Conference on Severe Local Storms, Portland, OR, Amer. Meteorol. Soc., Paper 1A.1, 1-11.
Tornadic Storms
Davies-Jones, R. P., R. J. Trapp, and H. B. Bluestein, 2001: Tornadoes and tornadic storms. Severe Convective Storms, C. A. Doswell, Ed., Amer. Meteor. Soc., 167–221.
Fujita, T., 1978: Workbook of tornadoes and high winds: SMRP Research Paper No. 165.
Klemp, J. B., and R. Rotunno, 1983: A study of the tornadic region within a supercell thunderstorm. J. Atmos. Sci., 40, 359–377.
Lewellen, D. C., and W.S. Lewellen, 2007: Near-surface intensification of tornado vortices. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 64, pp. 2176-2194
Lewellen, D. C., and W. S. Lewellen, 2007: Near-surface vortex intensification through corner flow collapse. J. Atmos. Sci., 64, 2195–2209.
Smith, B. T., R. L. Thompson, D. A. Speheger, A. R. Dean, C. D. Karstens, and A. K. Anderson-Frey, 2020a: WSR-88D tornado intensity estimates. Part I: Real-time probabilities of peak tornado wind speeds. Wea. Forecasting, 35, 2479–2492.
Smith, B. T., R. L. Thompson, D. A. Speheger, A. R. Dean, C. D. Karstens, and A. K. Anderson-Frey, 2020b: WSR-88D tornado intensity estimates. Part II: Real-time applications to tornado warning time scales. Wea. Forecasting, 35, 2493–2506.
Wicker, L. J., 1996: The role of near surface wind shear on low-level mesocyclone generation and tornadoes. Preprints, 18th Conf. on Severe Local Storms, San Francisco, CA, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 115–11.
Wicker, L. J., and R. B. Wilhelmson, 1995: Simulation and analysis of tornado development and decay within a three-dimensional supercell thunderstorm. J. Atmos. Sci., 52 , 2675–2703.
Supercells
Bluestein, H. B., and Weisman M. L. , 2000: The interaction of numerically simulated supercells initiated along lines. Mon. Wea. Rev., 128 , 3128–3149.
Beck, J., and C. Weiss, 2013: An assessment of low-level baroclinity and vorticity within a simulated supercell. Mon. Wea. Rev., 141, 649–669.
Dixon, A, 2019: Emulated radar observations of near updraft vorticity in a simulated tornadic supercell. Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Madison.
Nowotarski, C. J., J. M. Peters, and J. P. Mulholland, 2020: Evaluating the effective inflow layer of simulated supercell updrafts. Mon. Wea. Rev., 148, 3507–3532.
Peters, J. M., C. J. Nowotarski, H. Morrison, 2019: What gives supercells the most intense updrafts of all modes of convection? Amer. Geophy. Union, A53U-3051.
Peters, J. M., C. Nowotarski, and H. Morrison, 2019b: The role of vertical wind shear in modulating maximum supercell updraft velocities. J. Atmos. Sci., 76, 3169–3189.
Peters, J. M., C. J. Nowotarski, J. P. Mulholland, and R. L. Thompson, 2020: The influences of effective inflow layer streamwise vorticity and storm-relative flow on supercell updraft properties. J. Atmos. Sci., 77, 3033–3057.
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